Toxins & Your Ferret

What is a toxic substance and how do they work?

A toxic substance is a substance that can be poisonous or cause health effects. Toxins could be in products that we use daily, such as household cleaners, prescription and over-the-counter drugs, gasoline, alcohol, pesticides, fuel oil and cosmetics. Any chemical can actually be toxic or harmful under certain conditions. Essential oils (EO’s) are known to be toxic to ferrets and that makes them a major concern for us ferrents. Some chemicals can be toxic because they can harm us or our ferrets when they enter or come into contact with the body. Long term exposure to certain toxic substances can affect not only your health, but your beloved ferret’s health as well so it is crucial that you read about toxins in general to have a better understanding of them in order to avoid them from causing any harm. To determine the risk of harmful health effects from a substance, you must first know how toxic the substance is; how much, and by what means, your ferret is exposed; and how sensitive your ferret is to a particular substance. Each toxin works in different ways, and the severity of how it works on your ferret may also depend on your ferret as an individual. Also keep in mind that some substances may be more toxic than others and some will have different effects on your ferrets body. Essential oils for example may depend on which oil has been used on or around a particular ferret. Ferret A, may show signs within minutes like throwing up or having seizures, then Ferret B may not show signs for a couple of months, even possibly years because this particular toxin can build up in the vital organs over time. Thats where the whole ‘ferret as an individual’ comes into play. Potency: Potency (strength) is a measure of a chemical's toxicity. The more potent a chemical is, the more toxic it will be. The potency and, therefore, the toxicity of a chemical can be affected by its breakdown within the human or ferret body. When a substance is absorbed into the body, its chemical structure may be changed or metabolised to a substance that is more toxic or less toxic.

1. Exposure. A toxin can cause health effects only when it contacts or enters the body. There are 3 main routes of exposure when it comes to toxins and those are inhalation, ingestion or direct contact such as touching the skin.
2. Inhalation (breathing) of gases, vapors, dusts or mists is a common route of exposure. Chemicals can enter and irritate the nose, air passages and lungs. They can become deposited in the airways or be absorbed by the lungs into the bloodstream. The blood can then carry these substances to the rest of the body.
3. Ingestion (swallowing) of food, drink or other substances is another route of exposure and is the most well known cause of toxicity. It can be quite easy for your little ferret to pick up something such as a human medication while out at play so its crucial that you put any possible toxins and poisons away and out of reach. A good example of a toxin that can be ingested by your ferret is Ibuprofen or paracetamol. Both are common over the counter pain relief drugs for us humans but are certainly not a tasty treat for a ferret to find. Ferrets appear to be particularly sensitive to ibuprofen toxicosis. Signs of ibuprofen toxicosis can develop in as little as 4 hours but may take up to 48 hours to develop. (Ferrets develop neurological signs, including ataxia, tremors, seizures, and coma. Neurologic signs developed in almost 95% of ferrets in one study.) More information on Ibuprofen can be found on my thread on HFF. Read more here: http://holisticferret60.proboards.com/...
4. Direct contact (touching) with the skin or eyes is also a route of exposure. Some substances are absorbed through the skin and enter the bloodstream. Broken, cut or cracked skin will allow substances to enter the body more easily.

The route of exposure can determine whether or not the toxic substance has an effect.

. The amount of a substance that enters or comes into contact with a ferret can play a role in toxicity also, this is commonly called a dose. An important consideration in evaluating a dose is body weight. Here’s an example: If a child is exposed to the same amount of chemical as an adult, the child (who weighs less) can be affected more than the adult. Can you imagine how little it would take for a ferret? Back to the thought of Ibuprofen for a second. Dosages of more than 220 mg/kg can be lethal to our little fuzzy carnivores; this can be as little as one 200-mg tablet in a ferret. The greater the amount of a toxic substance a ferret is exposed to, the more likely that health effects will occur. Large amounts of a relatively harmless substance can be toxic. Even what we consider relatively small amounts can be toxic to our ferrets.

Short-term exposure to a toxin is called acute exposure. Long-term exposure is called chronic exposure. Either may cause health effects that are immediate or health effects that may not occur for some time. A ferret could have acute exposure and still show symptoms within minutes, months or years. A ferret may even have chronic exposure, and not show any symptoms of toxicity whatsoever in its lifetime, however that does not mean the damage has not been done on the inside.

1. Acute exposure is a short contact with a toxin. It may last a few seconds or a few hours. For example, it might take a few minutes to clean windows with ammonia, use nail polish remover or spray a can of paint. The fumes someone might inhale during these activities are examples of acute exposures.
2. Chronic exposure is continuous or repeated contact with a toxic substance over a long period of time ( days, months or years). If a chemical is used every day or continuously for example EO’s, the exposure would be chronic. Over time, some chemicals can build up in the body and cause long-term health effects such as organ damage or even death.

Sensitivity

Every ferret is different, so one ferret may be very sensitive to a particular toxin compared to another who is not. They also may not be affected by them in the same way and there are many reasons for this. Just like us, Ferrets bodies vary in their ability to break down or eliminate certain chemicals. They may be allergic to a certain chemical, either before exposure or after. Other factors may play a role in how sensitive a ferret may be to a certain toxin, such as age, or illness, and even medical or nonmedical drug use can also affect a sensitivity to a chemical. Young ferrets, like human children may be more sensitive to chemicals due to their bodies still being in the process of developing and they cannot get rid of some chemicals as well as adults. This would make it more easier for younger animals to absorb more of a certain chemical, this could mean that it may be a bigger risk being exposed.

What can happen if my ferret is exposed to a toxin?

Exposure to a particular toxin can produce a health effect directly at the site of contact (local) or elsewhere in the body (systemic), and that effect can be either immediate or delayed.

Chemicals can affect any system in the body, including respiratory (nose, air passages and lungs), digestive (mouth, throat, stomach, etc.), circulatory (heart, blood), nervous (brain, nerve cells) and reproductive (sperm, egg, etc.). Some chemicals, like acids, are nonspecific and cause damage on direct contact. Other chemicals, like gasoline, can be absorbed into the blood, and carried throughout the body. Some chemicals affect only certain target systems or target organs.

When Health Effects Will Occur Immediate health effects happen right away. They can occur directly at the site of contact or elsewhere in the body. For example, inhaled ammonia can irritate the linings of the nose, throat and lungs. Alcohol can cause dizziness. Immediate health effects are sometimes reversible and may disappear soon after the exposure stops. (Remember, Alcohol IS TOXIC to ferrets as well!) However, some immediate health effects do not go away; acute exposure to a corrosive substance, such as battery acid, may cause permanent damage to skin or eyes.

Delayed health effects may take months or years to appear and can result from either acute or chronic exposure to a toxic substance. The delay between the exposure and the appearance of health effects is called the latency period. Delayed health effects can be reversible or permanent. Permanent effects don't go away when the exposure stops. So basically once permanent, the damage is done, theres no reversing it.

Here’s a little snippet on EO’s.

Essential oils consist of hydrocarbons or monofunctional compounds from mono-and sesqui-terpenes, together phenylpropanoids and other volatile aliphatic and aromatic substances. Many terpenoids are rapidly absorbed orally and dermal (through the skin) by the ferret's system and are metabolized in the liver. Due to their volatile nature, inhalation of essential oil components is also possible, and these enter the bloodstream via the lungs, also to be metabolized in the liver. The terpenoids and their metabolites are often conjugated with glucuronic acid (glucuronidation) and glycine depending on the type of terpenoid and animal species involved. The conjugated metabolites are usually more water-soluble and are easily excreted through the kidney and feces. Cats & Ferrets cannot efficiently metabolize substances present in certain essential oils (including Tea Tree oil), which will therefore build up in the their bodies. This means that they are not efficiently excreted by the body and can accumulate in soft tissues and vital organs. Over a period of time, the substances can reach toxic levels which cause death or symptoms of poisoning. An owner could therefore use EO’s in supposedly safe low concentrations for some time with no symptoms, though the cat or ferret is being slowly poisoned as the toxins accumulate. This is similar to they way that heavy metals (e.g. lead, zinc) or poly-chlorinated bi-phenols (PCBs) accumulate in the soft tissues and organs. An added danger is that cheap essential oils may be adulterated with other things for various reasons; the combination of substances could be more toxic than the unadulterated oil.

What processes does the liver undergo to remove toxins?

The liver is the largest gland in the body and is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen. The liver is an important organ that performs many functions necessary for survival. The liver breaks nutrients down and builds up body tissue. The liver also acts as a storage site for vitamins and minerals. Red blood cells and Kupffer cells are produced in the liver, the Kupffer cells help to eliminate harmful micro-organisms as they travel through the blood to help fight infection. Glycogen is produced in the liver and is regulated throughout the body. The liver is vital when it comes to metabolic processes and how it affects other organs and the body, including hormonal concentration levels and disposal of toxins. Read about how the liver works here.

Protect Your Ferret!

There may be chemicals in your everyday life, but the best you can do is limit the exposure or prevent the hazard of toxicity when a ferret is around. Ferret proofing isn’t just preventing blockages! It is also to prevent our little critters from being exposed to toxins regardless of if they are exposed through ingestion, inhalation or direct contact etc. :P No matter how toxic a substance may be, if your ferret is NOT exposed to the substance, it cannot affect their health. The important rule to remember is: minimise exposure.

• Before you use a product, read the label carefully and check the ingredients to make sure there are no harmful ingredients to ferrets. When in doubt ask someone and or your vet for their advice and opinion. Remember that you should always seek a professional’s advice before using anything, especially like over the counter flea treatments (which honestly you should avoid). Pay attention to warnings on the label!!
• Use proper ventilation. Ventilation means getting fresh air into your home especially around your ferrets. If you’re going to use any s strong chemicals, its best to move your ferrets well away, even outside of the house. Things like flea bombs should be done over a weekend when your ferrets can be moved to another location temporarily so the house can air out. Avoid smoking or vaping inside the house when there are ferrets around.
• Store chemicals safely and out of the reach of your ferrets.
• If clothes become soiled while handling chemicals, change the clothes as soon as possible and keep them away from your ferrets to reduce exposure to them and yourself. Wash soiled clothes separately; then run the machine through a rinse cycle to clean it before washing more clothes.
• If you must use a toxic substance, buy only the amount needed so there will be less material left for storage or disposal.
• Try to avoid using a toxic substance. If that is not possible, choose products that have less or no toxic ingredients. For example, Most candles are made of paraffin wax, which creates highly toxic benzene and toluene when burned (both are known carcinogens), rather than risk these candles around your ferrets, use a 100% natural beeswax candle and preferably avoid soy. Beeswax candles actually clean the air and reduce indoor pollutants. They may be little more costly, but in all honestly it’s definitely worth every penny.

The more you know about toxic substances, the more you can reduce exposure and keep your ferrets safe.

Ferret Nutrition: Get Your Ferret Eating Bones.

How to get your ferret eating edible bone in meat.

"My ferret won't eat chicken wings no matter how hard I try, what can I do?"

This is the 4th time I've received an email in regards to getting ferrets on to bone in meats, so I decided I would write a blog post on the general topic. I will also be speaking a lot from experience, since I had two ferrets; one who would eat right away, and another who needed just a little more convincing that those delicious wings were edible.

Ferrets who were former kibble eaters are known to be quite harder to convince when it comes to transitioning in general, whereas a fairly young kit (baby ferret,  under the age of 6) should be more willing to try a new food. Some ferrets take longer to get used to bone in meats because they need to build up their jaw strength in order to efficiently break down bones. It would be a good idea to also give them some gizzards since gizzards are known to help build jaw strength.

Bone in meats are not necessarily the hardest part of transitioning, even though some will say it is. I did a poll quite recently and surprisingly it was Organs who had a higher vote, and then Bone in meats coming in second. For me personally, It was and wasn't the hardest part. My 6 month old (at the time), Yuki, tried the bone in meat on the first try and was eating more willingly by the second try. Lucky for me, I got him just before he imprinted on the kibble by the sounds of it.  My Female, however, was much harder to convince. She was 8 months at the time. She was incredibly stubborn and I had to continue to work with her even after I graduated from the HFF mentoring program.  She wouldn't touch bone in meats at all. I tried all the tricks and in the end the only thing that Helped me, was a tough love approach—which I will talk about further on in this article.

I hope by the time you finish reading this article that you will find some technique that will help you with getting your stubborn ferret eating bones. It's not impossible, and you can do it!

First, Let's cover what a bone in meat really is in raw diets.

My little girl, Haru, Finally eating BIM on her own in my lap. :)

Bone in meat is what we commonly call it in Raw feeding. It can also be known as meat on bones, or meaty bones, or RMB (raw meaty bones). Bone in meat is meat with bone included, Not bones with little to no meat or stripped meat. To keep things balanced, you need entire raw meaty bones with the flesh included. Examples of Bone in meats are wings, necks, poultry drumsticks, ribs, button bones ect. Many common proteins used for bone in meats are: Chicken, Quail, Rabbit, Turkey, Duck, Pork, Cornish Game Hen; Whole Prey such as, Mice, Rats, Guinea pig, whole small birds, etc. Bone in meats are essential for a ferrets diet. They clean and keep teeth healthy and virtually plaque free.
Raw meat in general is nutritionally superior to cooked meat and commercial pet food as non of its nutritional value has been altered in some way as it is done with cooked meat or pet food.

Cooked Bones?

The bone in meat must be strictly raw for health concerns. Never feed cooked bones to your ferrets as they can pose a serious risk. Once the bone in meat has gone through the cooking process, it can remove the nutritional value of the meat and the bones become more brittle, increasing the risk of splintering. Not only can the cooked bones cause splintering, but they could also result in broke teeth, mouth or tongue damage, or internal damage (Even Blockages!) due to the brittleness of the cooked bone.

How To Start.

There are multiple ways of starting with bone in meats. Here's a good list of what you could do and keep in mind that not all techniques may work so trying a variety is recommended when you're dealing with a stubborn ferret.

Since Wings are the most used bone in meat when getting a ferret onto bones, here's a photo showing the wing parts. This is a duck wing, and as you can see, its been segmented already. The whole wing has three segments, the drumette, the wingette and the tip. The drumette segment has

I will also show you a diagram I made up showing the different ways I've cut up wings below.

Some people prefer to cut their wings into sections, like I did in the above photo.  I personally prefer to feed them this way since its easier for me to divide them into baggies when I weigh them out for ferret meals. As long as there is still bone in tact, then it will be considered a bone in meat meal. 

It's not recommended that you continuously feed bone in meats mashed or ground (Unless you're okay with brushing on a regular basis).  Feeding ground or even the mashed meat makes eating too easy for ferrets since they don't need to use too much of their jaw strength to consume the meat. That means there are risks of your ferret becoming lazy with eating, meaning they will eat fast and that is a risk for choking. Monitor your ferret to avoid any choking hazards.  It may also cause hiccups, which happens with eating too fast. The main point of feeding raw bones is to ensure the dental health of your ferret. Ground meat is worthless when it comes to cleaning and keeping your ferrets teeth healthy. It's even is worthless for mental stimulation compared to whole bone in meats.

Techniques.

• Whole: You can cut the wings into segments and attempt to start feeding them with the segments as a whole. If your lucky they may go right for it. If not, try some other techniques.
• Segments: Cut the whole wing into segments, Drumette, Wingette, & Tip then try feeding them as they are.
• Sections: Cut the segments (Drumette, Wingette & Tip) Into sections like shown in the photo little further up in this article. They should be bite size for ferrets, even small sections are alright to help get them on bone in meats. Then try feeding them as they are, or drizzle oil on them.
• Mash: This is the 'start from the start' technique. Simply chop up one of the segments of a wing into a mash. The bones should be completely chopped up so the entire meal looks like a mash. Over time, Increase the sizes but chopping them less and less until the ferret is eating the whole segment without the use of mashing. Mashing can also be used as a grind. So if you have a grinder, simply grind up the bone in meats and simply introduce small bits of bone in meats and increase over time. Keep in mind that you will have to check and brush teeth until your ferret is completely on solid bone in meats.

• Hand Feeding: If all else fails, you can resort to hand feeding. With hand feeding a wing, you can either use the tip, wingette or drumette. Wings are preferred since drumettes are more dense and larger compared to the wingette or tip. They can be segmented, or sectioned or in chunks, what ever you feel like using (just increase over time).
• Oil or Warm Water: Using a tasty animal based oil such as salmon oil, Drizzle little over the meat and then offer it to them. This can also be used with hand feeding. Using warm water, run the meat under a running tap of warm water then straight away offer it to them. These techniques are used to entice the ferret. They may and may not work for all.

Hand Feeding / Tough Love Technique.

I found my stubborn girl, Haru disliked the tip. Possibly because it wasn't as fleshy compared to the drumette or wingette. So I started with the wingette.  A good idea would to be to divide the wingette into a half.  I think the whole wingette may be little overwhelming, so thats how I got the idea into dividing it. It also opens up the flesh more to entice the ferret. Then using one half of the wingette, you need to grab hold of your ferret and gently rub the end of the fleshy bone along their gum-lines. They will wriggle and paw you away, but do your best to see this through. This is a tough love technique so obviously they're going to hate it and probably hate you for doing it, but in the end it works. The next thing you want to do is to watch your ferret and feel for an opening. When your ferret slightly opens their mouth, stick the bone in on the side  (not all the way in) then rub it against their carnassial teeth or hold it there firmly until they start a chewing motion. Remember to give them a lot of verbal encouragement. 

"Good boy/girl" "Taste the yummy meat. You'll love it." "That's it, great job! You're such a smart ferret!" "Come on lovely, open your mouth and chew on this yummy piece of meat~" "You did it! Good ferret! Keep going! Little more!" 

Verbal encouragement really does help a lot. Ferrets are intelligent little creatures, so little verbal encouragement can go a long way with them. When they do something good, like finally chewing a piece of meat, make a HUGE deal out of it. They need to know that what they're doing is good and they are very good little ferrets for doing it.

A video posted by Machan☆HFF (@hakibeferret) on Aug 6, 2015 at 4:05am PDT

Back to the talk on the hand feeding. Once they begin to chew, hold it there for them for about five minutes. They don't have to finish the entire half, so only do this for no more than five minutes per session. You can stop and put down the meat (unless they really are going at it) and give your ferret a good rub and tell them how pleased you are with how much progress they've made regardless of how much or how little they tried. Let them rest afterwards, and proceed again in a couple of hours time. I repeated this for a couple of days and sometimes tried the small five minute sessions in between meals. It helps to build bonds and I loved this technique. (I even had to use this for whole prey- shudder!)    Eventually you may notice that you are needing less and less encouragement in order for them to try and chew the bone in meat. When this happens, try and let go of your hold to the wingette half. If they go to run off, grab hold of them and revert back to firmly holding it for them while they chew. Continue to try and let go until they are sitting by themselves in your lap and eating their bone in meat by themselves.

Starting bone in meat from the start.

When it comes to a stubborn ferret who doesn't recognise this delicious raw meat as edible food, then the best way to get them on the good stuff is by starting small and building your way up.

Chicken wings are the best starter meat to bone in meats (I probably mentioned this before). They are small and fairly easy to chop up by using a cleaver. You can start by chopping it up until it resembles a meaty mash like the photo in the left hand side.

You could try and place it down for your ferret and see how they deal with it, however if they do turn their noses up on this delicious meal then you will have to grab some and rub it along their gums. The point of that is to get them used to the new strange tastes. Remember they don't recognise this as food. Another good advise would be to feed only a small amount. Not the amount shown in the photo on the left. Less makes it less intimidating for them. :) If they take a liking, then simply increase the amount. If this also fails then you will have to resort to hand feeding them. This is where you will have to start the tough love with your ferret. They will struggle and try to push you away, but don't give in to their childish antics.

Grab your ferret (gently of course!) and hold them in your lap. They will attempt to wriggle and run off, but don't let them. If you feel uncomfortable when it comes to feeding this way, you will have to try your best to pull through this. It is for their health and it is all worth it in the end. If you find you have a really wriggly ferret, a good way to get them in your control would be to tuck their back legs underneath your armpit. They should have support on your arm as well and with your free hand try hand feeding them.

Most people will say to scruff, however I do not find that technique necessary. Scruffing should never be used for anything that is not medical, or emergency. I'm not going to go into detail on that here though.

Once your ferret is eating the mashed bone in meat you can then increase the size to sections like in the photo I have posted little further up in this article. Example of sections of the entire wing are in the right hand side photo.  You can either take away the mash completely and introduce sections, or you can introduce a couple of sections into the mash and gradually reduce the amount of mash. Another technique would be to simply reduce the mashing little by little until the ferret is eating the bone in meats without it being mashed.  Either way, your ferret should have the same result by being on bone in meats completely or at least eating segments, or sections.

Conclusion

Some ferrets take longer to get onto bone in meats, and some take less. In the end, as long as you're persistent and patient as the ferrent, you should eventually have a ferret who is eating their bone in meats like a pro. I hope that all that I have written has helped you in one way or another. If your ferret is eating bone in meats, I'm very interested in hearing how you went about it. Please leave me some comments and tell me how you went. If you have a question, don't hesitate to comment below.

If you need assistance with transitioning your ferret to a natural raw diet, feel free to come and visit The Holistic Ferret Forum where you can apply for a Mentor to help guide you through the process.

Raw Eggs / Salmonella

Most ferrets are not susceptible to salmonella and efficiently pass it without infection.

▶Eggs are human grade and human grade is more controlled and monitored closely compared to the pet food industry. 

▶Pet food has more of a chance of being contaminated with salmonella. (Even kibble fed ferrets are known to shed salmonella in their stools.) In fact I counted 20 on the FDA list for this year. The recent being by BRAVO chicken and Turkey pet food on the 10th of Dec.

▶In the chance that you were to feed a contaminated egg you need to be aware that the ferret stomach is a bacteria colonising deterrent and this basically means that the environment in the ferret stomach discourages any bacteria from taking over the host.

▶A ferrets digestive system is very short (only 3-4 hours) so that leaves no time for the salmonella which needs 12-72 hours, or even e.coli, which needs 3-4 days to incubate. That makes it highly unlikely that these illnesses would affect the ferret.

Its not impossible,  just very very very very very very unlikely.

Differences between cats and dogs: a nutritional view

Machan: I was doing some research and came across this article on the differences in cats and dogs. I thought I would share it with you since this can also apply to ferrets since like cats, ferrets are obligate carnivores which would mean that the overall body structure would be quite similar in a way. It should give you a general idea and give you some insight on general carnivore nutrition along with bits and pieces on minerals and vitamins, including even Taurine.

Article Source: http://journals.cambridge.org/downl...

Keynote Lecture 2

Differences between cats and dogs: a nutritional view

BY VERONIQUE LEGRAND-DEFRETIN Waltham Centrefor Pet Nutrition, Waltham-on-the-Wolds,Melton Mowbray LE14 4RT

Cats and dogs have been associated with man for many centuries, and in modern society they probably represent the two most popular companion animals. In 1992 there were approximately forty million cats and thirty-eight million dogs in Europe, representing 18 and 21% of households respectively. Despite their popularity, the nutritional require- ments of both species have only been studied in detail during the last 20 years.

Regarding zoological classification, both cats and dogs fall into the order Carnivora. However, a comparison of the nutritional requirements of the cat and the dog supports the hypothesis that specialization consistent with the evolutionary influence of a strict carnivorous diet has occurred in the cat. In addition, there appears to be more variety in the diets of Canids than in those of Felids. The ancestors of dogs are known to eat mammals, fish, birds and amphibians as well as vegetable matter (berries, apples, pears) whereas wild cats only eat animals (small antelopes, rodents, birds, fish, etc; Rohrs, 1987). Examples of the cat specializations can be summarized as follows:

1. The cat has limited ability to regulate the catabolic enzymes of amino acid metabolism, which causes the cat to require a higher level of dietary protein for maintenance than the dog;
2. The cat has a lower capacity to synthesize the sulphonic acid taurine than the dog and is unable to conjugate bile acids to glycine. Thus the cat, unlike the dog, cannot meet its taurine requirement from dietary S-containing amino acids;
3. The cat cannot synthesize sufficient nicotinic acid from tryptophan because of an increased activity of a-picolinic acid decarboxylase ( E C 4.1.1.45) leading to the endproduct glutamate rather than nicotinic acid;
4. The cat is unable to convert carotene to retinol and, therefore, cannot satisfy its vitamin A requirements with a herbivorous diet alone;
5. The cat cannot convert sufficient linoleic acid to meet its requirement for arachidonic acid;
6. The cat seems to be unable to cope with high levels of carbohydrate in its diet and appears to be in a constant state of gluconeogenesis.

These feline specificpeculiarities (which will be presented in the present paper) appear to confirm that, unlike the dog, the cat is an obligate carnivore and is dependent on a supply of at least some animal-derived materials in its diet.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENT

Total protein

Protein is required in greater amounts by the cat than most other mammals, including dogs (Tables 1 and 2; National Research Council, 1985, 1986).

Table 1. Protein requirement (gIMJ diet) of cats and dogs

Table 2. Minimalessential amino acid requirements of kittens and puppies for growth

Work conducted at the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition has shown that when all essential amino acids are present at more than adequate concentrations, about 10% protein energy is required to maintain adult cats in protein (N) balance (Burger et al. 1984;Burger Sr Smith, 1987). No such studies exist in dogs. However, the National Research Council (1985) recommends that 6% of energy comes from dispensable amino acids. These studies showed that the higher protein requirement of the cat is not due to an increased requirement for essential amino acids but a need for more protein in total, irrespective of its essential amino acid content. The metabolic explanation seems to lie with the increased activity of the N-catabolizing enzymes. Alanine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.2) and glutamate dehy- drogenase (EC 1.4.1.3) activities are greater than those of either the dog or the rat (Table 3; Schaeffer et al. 1989). In contrast, the level of enzyme activity fix the breakdown of the essential amino acids (e.g. threonine dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.16), serine dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.13); Rogers et al. 1977) is lower in the cat than in rats fed on a high-protein diet. Finally, unlike other mammals that can adjust their rate of protein breakdown, cats seem unable to ‘switch off these mechanisms when presented with a low-protein diet (Table 4; Rogers et al. 1977).

Arginine

Table 3. Effect of dietary protein on hepatic alanine aminotransferaseactivity (EC 2.6.1.2;pmollmin per g) (From Schaeffer et al. 1989) (Mean values with their standard errors)

Table 4. Comparison of alanine aminotransferase activity (EC 2.6.1.2) in the cat and rat fed on low- and high-protein diets* (From Rogers et al. 1977)

In addition to a high total protein requirement, the cat’s requirements for a number of the individual amino acids are of particular interest. Both cats and dogs show signs of hyperammonaemia when fed on an arginine-free diet (Morris & Rogers, 1978a,b; Czarnecki & Baker, 1984). However, arginine deficiency is more severe in the cat, since a single arginine-free meal results in severe adverse effects 2-5 h later. Hyper- ammonaemia occurs following an inability to metabolize N compounds via the urea cycle, and in serious cases can lead to death (Morris & Rogers. 1978a,b). A comparison of the clinical signs in cats, dogs, ferrets and rats following consumption of an arginine-free diet led Morris (1985) to the conclusion that cats and ferrets are more sensitive to a deficiency of dietary arginine, dogs being intermediate, while growing rats exhibit only a depression in food intake.

The addition of ornithine to an arginine-free diet can prevent hyperammonaemia in kittens and puppies, although other clinical signs such as body-weight loss in kittens are not prevented (Morris & Rogers, 19788; Czarnecki & Baker, 1984). Other studies on citrulline supplementation showed that this latter intermediate of the urea cycle was not as efficiently utilized as arginine (Morris et al. 1979; Czarnecki & Baker, 1984). The susceptibility of cats to arginine-free diets seems to be related to the low activities of two enzymes involved in intestinal ornithine synthesis (pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase (EC 1.5.1.2) and ornithine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.13); for further details, see Morris, 1985; Rogers & Phang, 1985). After an overnight fast, depletion of the urea-cycle intermediates occurs in the liver and in the circulation. When the cat is given an arginine-free meal, protein catabolism and amino acid deamination overload the urea cycle which is then unable to dispose of the NH3 produced. Reliance of the cat on its diet for precursors of the urea-cycle intermediates, rather than de novo synthesis, is intlicati.de of the natural animal-derived diet of the cat.

Sulplzur amino acids and taurine

No discussion of the aminoacid requirements of companion animals would be complete without mention of the importance of the S amino acids and of taurine in cats. The dietary requirement of cats for methionine and cysteine is higher than that for most other mammals, including the dog (Table 2). It was first thought that the urinary excretion in cats of felinine, a unique branched-chain amino acid, was one of the reasons for this high requirement. However, Rogers (1963) showed that 35S from [35S]methionine or [35S]cysteinewas not incorporated into felinine. Thus, if the physiological significance of felinine is territorial marking (urinary excretion of felinine is higher in adult male than in adult female cats) or involvement in the regulation of sterol metabolism, the roule of its synthesis is not known. Methionine and cysteine may act to a limited extent as precursors of taurine synthesis. However, the quantity of S amino acids needed for this synthesis does not account for their high requirement (National Research Council, 1986). Cysteine is metabolized by at least four pathways, only one of which involves the oxidation of cysteine followed by decarboxylation of cysteinesulphinate to produce taurine. The other pathways involve desulphydration of cysteine to release pyruvate, NH3 and S. The direct pathway of desulphydration accounted for 8148% of the enzyme activity in the tissue of cats fed on a high-protein diet (Park et al. 1991). The reasons for cats requiring imore S amino acids than dogs are still not explained; one suggestion is that it is related to the thick coat of the cat (MacDonaldetaf.1984).

The particular importance of taurine in cat nutrition was discovered less than 20 years ago when a taurine deficiency in cats was associated with central retinal degradation (Hayes et al. 1975). More recent research suggests that taurine deficiency is also associated with poor reproductive performance in breeding females, poor growth in kittens and dilated cardiomyopathy in adult cats (Sturman et al. 1986; Pion et al. 1987). Taurine is a p-amino sulphonic acid (2-amino ethane-sulphonic acid) and as such1is not present in protein, but its concentration in animal-derived materials is high (National Research Council, 1986). Taurine is an endproduct of S amino acid metabolism and is normally synthesized from cysteine in the liver (Fig. 1).Its main physiological sig- nificance is its conjugation with bile acids, its presence in some peptides and its role in the osmoregulation of cells. It is not metabolized as such by cat tissues since endogenous or dietary taurine is excreted in urine without modification. However, taurine can undergo microbial degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. Unlike most other animals, cats are not able to synthesize sufficient taurine to meet their needs due to a low activity of the enzymes cysteinesulphinate decarboxylase (EC4.1.1.29) and cysteine dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.20) (Hardison et ul. 1977; Knopf et al. 1978; for review, see Morris & Rogers, 1992). However, according to current thinking, the high requirement of cats for taurine is more probably linked to bile acid enterohepatic circulation. In mammals, bile acids neosynthesized in the liver or recycled from the intestine are conjugated to glycine or taurine before being secreted into bile. Cats, unlike humans but like rats and dogs, conjugate most of their bile acids to taurine. In addition, cats and dogs, unlike rats, are unable to switch to glycoconjugation when taurine is limiting, and in taurine depletion some free bile acids appear in bile in cats (Hickman et al. 1992). Bile salts secreted into the small intestine will be mainly reabsorbed by passive and active transport in the jejunum and ileum respectively, but they might also be deconjugated and/or metabolized into secondary bile salts by intestinal bacteria. Taurine released by deconjugation may be either reabsorbed from the intestine or lost from the taurine pool. Thus, bile salt production represents an obligatory loss of taurine for the cat (Sturman et al. 1978). The cat’s requirement €ortaurine is higher when fed on a canned food than when fed on a dry food (canned food 2200-2500 mg taurine/kg dry matter; Pion et al. 1989; Earle & Smith, 1991;dry food 1000mg taurine/kg dry matter; Douglass et al. 1991). The reasons for this discrepancy have yet to be explained but one hypothesis is that the enterohepatic circulation of bile salts is increased in cats fed on canned products since, on a dry matter basis, these generally contain more fat than dry products. If this is the case, decon- jugation of bile salts by intestinal bacteria will be increased and, although some taurine is usually reabsorbed from the intestine, its excretion from the digestive tract may be augmented.

VITAMIN REQUIREMENTS

Nicotinic acid

In most animals, nicotinic acid is an endproduct of tryptophan degradation (Fig. 2). Thus, dietary requirements are dependent on the level of tryptophan in the diet. However , the efficiency of this pathway is species-dependent according to the presence andor activities of the enzymes involved in tryptophan catabolism. In cats, rate of removal of the intermediate a-amino-P-carboxymuconic-esemialdehydeis so rapid that no nicotinic acid is produced (Da Silva et al. 1952; De Castro et al. 1957; Ikeda et al. 1965). This is due to the high activity of a-picolinic carboxylase which actively transforms tryptophan into glutamic acid even after tryptophan loading (Da Silva et al. 1952). Accordingly, although dogs have historically played an important role in the understanding of the development of pellagra in humans, their requirements for nicotinic acid are smaller than those of cats (growing dog 717 p,g/MJ metabolizable energy (ME), growing cat 1912 p.g/MJ ME; Morris & Rogers, 1989).

Vitamin A

The term vitamin A correctly applies only to retinol, retinaldehyde and retinoic acid. Preformed retinol is found in foods of animal origin and some bacteria, while only small amounts of retinaldehyde and retinoic acid may occur in foods. Dehydroretinol can be reduced to retinol in vivo, has half the biological activity of retinol, and can be found as a dietary source in freshwater fish and amphibians. A number of carotenoids, called provitamin A carotenoids, are present in plants, fruits and milk. Among these compounds, f3-carotene is the most important because in most animals it has the highest vitamin A activity when transformed by intestinal carotene dioxygenase (EC 1.14.99.5) to retinaldehyde (Turner, 1934). However, the activity of this enzyme is low, so that in many species such as dogs and humans a relatively large proportion of ingested p-carotene may appear in the circulation unchanged. In cats, this situation is pushed to an extreme since this enzyme is undetectable in their intestinal mucosa (Gershoff et al. 1957). Thus, the requirement of cats for vitamin A can be fulfilled only from food of animal origin, which provides preformed vitamin A.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS

Most animals have a requirement for polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 series) which can be satisfied by the provision of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) in the diet. Alternating steps of desaturation and chain elongation allow production of y-linolenic (18:3n-6), dihomo- y-linolenic (20:3n-6) and arachidonic acids (20:4n-6) successively (Fig. 3). Early studies on these metabolic pathways were carried out in rats and it was assumed that they were present in other animals. Rivers et al. (1975) reported low levels of plasma arachidonic acid in cats fed on purified diets containing linoleic acid but no arachidonic acid. Subsequently, Rivers et al. ( 1 9 7 6 ~ a~n)d Hassam et al. (1977) reported that cats were unable to synthesize y-linolenic acid from linoleic acid or arachidonic acid from dihomo-y-linolenic acid because of a defect in A6-desaturase and A5-desaturase activities. Frankel & Rivers (1978) then fed evening primrose oil (rich in y-linolenic acid) to cats that had previously been fed on safflower seed oil as the only source of fat. After 5 d there were increased levels of y-linolenic and dihomo-y-linolenic acids but not of arachidonic acid that led these authors to postulate a lack of A5-desaturase activity. However, after 10 weeks the level of arachidonic acid was increased (Frankel, 1980). Meanwhile, Sinclair et al. (1979) showed the ability of cats to synthesize arachidonic acid from y-linolenic and dihomo-y-linolenic acids but not from linoleic acid and concluded that A5-desaturase activity was present in the liver of the cat. In conclusion, cats, unlike dogs, have an essential requirement for arachidonic acid because of limiting A6- desaturase activity. Since arachidonic acid is present only in fat of animal origin, cats must be seen as obligate carnivores.

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Providing their diet supplies sufficient gluconeogenic amino acids and fat (thus, glycerol), cats can be maintained on a carbohydrate-free diet. In dogs, although carbohydrate can be of importance in the diets of some racing breeds (Legrand-Defretin & Munday, 1993), there is no known minimum requirement for this nutrient. However, petfoods commonly contain moderate to high levels of carbohydrate (i.e. cat foods 70-500 g/kg dry weight, dog foods 60-700 g/kg dry weight). Starch, sucrose and lactose are the main dietary carbohydrates, although lactose and sucrose, present in milk and sugar cane respectively, are less common in the diets of cats and dogs. In addition, it has been reported that both adult cats and dogs can exhibit lactose intolerance characterized by severe diarrhoea (Morris et al. 1977; Mundt & Meyer, 1989). Cats also differ from dogs in their carbohydrate metabolism since they appear to be in a constant state of gluconeogenesis. The concentration of hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) in the feline liver is similar to that of other omnivorous animals but glucokinase (EC 2.7.1.2) activity is lower, suggesting that cats will not be able to handle high-carbohydrate diets (Ballard, 1965). Pancreatic amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) activity is approximately three times higher in the dog than in the cat and high levels of dietary starch stimulate intestinal amylase activity to a greater extent in dogs than in cats (Meyer & Kienzle, 1991). Cats can maintain their plasma glucose levels when starved after having been fed on a high-protein diet, whereas cats previously fed on a high-carbohydrate diet showed decreased glucosaemia (Kettlehut et al. 1978). Increasing the protein level of cat rations does not stimulate the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (EC 4.1.1.32), a key glucorieogenic enzyme (Kettlehut et al. 1978). The activity of another gluconeogenic enzyme, hepatic serine-pyruvate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.51), has been reported to be very high in cats and other carnivores (Rowsell et al. 1979). Finally, both glucagon and insulin seem to be more responsive to amino acid stimuli than to glucose (for review, see Morris & Rogers, 1989).

CONCLUSION

Although the present review of the nutritional differences between dogs and cats is not intended to be exhaustive, the examples of feline peculiarities presented here illustrate the obligate carnivorous nature of this animal. The field of carnivorous nutrition is wide and has not been extensively studied. However, it can be suggested that the cat could be used as a model to illustrate and show well-established pathways in a new light. For example, lions, like cats, are unable to desaturate linoleic acid (Rivers et al. 197tib). It is believed that the lack of adaptation of cats to changes in dietary composition is the consequence of low evolutionary pressure. Although both cats and dogs have been associated with humans for millennia, the latter have developed a dependence on humans for finding food whereas the former have kept their hunting nature. In terms of practical feeding, it seems evident that cat food should contain animal-derived raw materials to ensure that all their requirements are met.

Homemade Freeze-dried Ferret Treats

Freeze dried meats can be really great treats for your ferrets. 

They’re especially great for training and most of the time ferrets cannot resist those that are freshly made! The best thing about freeze drying is the fact you can pretty much freeze dry any meat for a treat. I don’t recommend liver because liver contains vitamin A. Too much vitamin A can become toxic to ferrets because its a fat soluble vitamin, meaning it stores itself in their bodies which can easily cause them to over dose on it. So for long term use for treats its best avoided. Try getting your hands on some fatty muscle meats, those are always best! Freeze drying can be fairly easy to do and all you need is a few simple things to get started. 

Freeze drying is a process that preserves food by removing 98 percent of its water content. This prevents food from spoiling, while still maintaining most of its flavor, color, texture, and nutritional value. 

A lot of people do not own an actual freeze drying machine, however, there are many ways to freeze dry food. This is a very simple method that can achieve the same result by using your freezer at home!

You will need:

• 1 x Chicken Breast Fillet (Or Other Meat, I recommend the fattier cuts like Thigh)
• A baking tray.
• Baking paper.
• An electric steamer, or pot with a steamer.

First take out a chopping board and a good knife and cut the thawed out chicken into bite size chunks. Not too small because you want them a fairly good size to steam and then after they’re steamed they are much easier to cut smaller. I suggest cutting them in strips, like how you would for a stir fry.

Turn on your stove and preheat the pot with the water. (Skip the cooking process if you aim for raw freeze dried treats, see end of article for more info) If you have an electric steamer, preheat that. When it starts steaming, place your chicken bits in and let them sit with a cover over the top for about 15-20 minutes. The reason I steam the meat is because I don’t like boiling just incase the meat becomes soggy. Steaming also maximise’s antioxidants so its always been my route when it came to cooking the treats.

When the chicken is done, place it on a cooling rack or a plate to cool. When the chicken pieces are at room temperature, cut the pieces into small chunks. The smaller, the better because I noticed with my ferrets that they tend to stash treats if they are too large in size. 

When you’re finished, grab your tray and place some baking paper over it then pile on your treats. Evenly flatten the treats on the tray. Also be sure to make sure that the tray can fit in a spot in your freezer.  You will then leave the meat in the freezer uncovered to dry for about a week to two weeks. For best results, leave them for two weeks. You will also have to try your best not to interrupt the freeze drying process too much by opening up the freezer. The less you interrupt, the faster it dries out.

After about a week, check the meat by letting a piece thaw out. If you see or feel any water or moisture, then it isn’t completely done and you will have to put it back or leave the rest to dry for another couple of days or week. To know for sure that the treats have become dehydrated, they must be completely dry even after you leave them out to thaw. When they’re completely dry with no moisture, you can then place them in some zip lock bags and use them when ever you need.

See? Simple. Have fun making some treats for your fuzzies!!

Note: Yes, you can easily freeze-dry raw meats as well! All you need to do is skip the cooking process. It may require more freeze drying time, just continue to check after a couple of weeks. When in doubt, a good up to 5 weeks might do the trick. :)

Things to keep in mind,
Different types of meat cook faster and some cook longer, google to confirm how long is the best time for the type of meat you are cooking if you aim to cook for freeze dried treats.

Store freeze dried treats in an air tight zip lock bag inside the fridge or freezer. I keep mine in the freezer. :)

To read about my first try on Freeze Dried Raw, Read my blog entry here.